Unlocking the maritime frontier of nuclear energy: Floating nuclear power plants and merchant nuclear propelled ships

But FNPPs are only one half of the maritime nuclear equation.

In parallel, commercial interest is growing in nuclear-propelled ships—vessels that use nuclear reactors for propulsion rather than electricity generation alone. As global shipping looks to decarbonize and eliminate dependence on bunker fuel, nuclear-powered cargo vessels, cruise liners, and offshore hydrogen production ships are being explored as viable, high-endurance, zero-emission alternatives. Together, FNPPs and merchant nuclear ships represent a new frontier for clean, mobile, and resilient energy.

With nuclear power needing to triple by 2050—requiring the addition of approximately 40 GWe per year, including 70 small modular reactors (SMRs) annually—maritime nuclear applications offer two promising pathways to supplement land-based deployment. FNPPs offer a towable, relocatable solution for hard-to-reach regions, while nuclear-propelled ships could transform the shipping industry into a low-carbon backbone of global logistics. This paper examines both classes of technology, explores their synergies, and analyzes the regulatory and institutional coordination required to unlock their full potential.

Floating nuclear power plants: A buoyant solution for global deployment

FNPPs are floating vessels outfitted with nuclear reactors designed to supply electricity, heat, and industrial energy products such as hydrogen or desalinated water. They can be constructed in shipyards using modular, assembly-line techniques, then towed to coastal or remote deployment sites where the construction of large nuclear facilities is not feasible. This allows construction and site preparation to occur in parallel—reducing overall time to operation. It also allows the manufacturing, operating, refueling, and decommissioning of the reactor to occur in different locations if needed.

The Akademik Lomonosov FNPP—currently operating in Pevek, Russia—has proven the concept by delivering nearly 1 TWh of power and domestic heat to the northernmost city in Russia under Arctic conditions since 2020. Its successors will employ upgraded RITM-200S reactors and support new copper and rare earth metal mining projects in Russia’s Far East. Other developers, such as Core Power, Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power, Saltfoss Energy, and Samsung Heavy Industries are exploring commercial applications of FNPPs.

FNPPs offer many of the same advantages touted by SMRs, but add some further benefits as well by virtue of their offshore configuration:

• Accelerated Deployment: Shipyard modular construction reduces delays, capital costs, and improves quality control.
• Reduced Site Preparation: Offshore siting avoids many of the geological, seismic, and infrastructure constraints of land-based reactors.
• Weather Resilience: FNPPs can be designed for tsunamis, earthquakes, and extreme climates.
• Scalability: Mass production and modularization allow for standardized, rapid replication.
• Relocatability: Unlike fixed plants, FNPPs can be moved to meet shifting demand or support emergency recovery zones.
• Centralized Maintenance: Refueling and decommissioning can occur at centralized shipyard hubs.

For countries without established nuclear programs, FNPPs may offer an easier on-ramp. A fully fabricated, fuel-loaded reactor can be imported and connected to the local grid without requiring enrichment, fabrication, or waste management infrastructure. This has drawn interest from island nations, remote mining regions, and energy-intensive infrastructure operators like data centers.

Merchant nuclear propelled ships: The legacy and future of maritime propulsion

Nuclear power at sea is not a novel concept—it has been around for seven decades. Since the launch of the USS Nautilus in 1955—the world’s first nuclear-powered submarine—more than 160 vessels have been powered by over 200 small nuclear reactors. While the majority are military vessels operated by the U.S., Russia, the U.K., France, China, and India, civil applications have also emerged. Russia continues to operate a robust fleet of nuclear icebreakers and the Sevmorput cargo vessel, enabling year-round Arctic logistics.

Nuclear propulsion is ideal for ships requiring long endurance without refueling. The U.S. Navy alone has accumulated over 6,200 reactor-years without a single radiological incident—a safety record attributed to rigorous training, standardization, and maintenance. This legacy is now being translated into commercial interest, with projects in South Korea, Norway, and the U.S. exploring molten salt and gas-cooled SMR technologies for marine propulsion.

Merchant nuclear ships offer transformative advantages for the decarbonization and modernization of maritime logistics:

• Zero-Emission Transport: Nuclear propulsion eliminates greenhouse gas emissions, sulfur oxides, and nitrogen oxides that result from burning bunker fuel, positioning nuclear-powered vessels as a critical solution to meeting the International Maritime Organization’s (IMO) 2050 climate targets.
• Extended Endurance: Unlike fossil-fueled ships that must refuel every few weeks, nuclear vessels can operate for years between refueling intervals, enabling direct global trade routes, fewer port calls, and faster delivery schedules.
• Energy Security and Price Stability: Nuclear energy is insulated from the volatility of global fuel markets, allowing ship operators to hedge against spikes in oil and gas prices.
• Strategic Access: For routes through the Arctic or geopolitically sensitive chokepoints, nuclear propulsion ensures mobility and resilience under extreme or unstable conditions.
• Dual-Use Opportunity: In addition to propulsion, excess thermal or electrical energy can be repurposed for cargo refrigeration, hydrogen electrolysis, or onboard CO₂ capture and conversion.

Together, these benefits create strong commercial incentives for early adopters, especially in high-value shipping sectors where endurance, speed, and carbon intensity are increasingly scrutinized.

Several companies and research consortia are advancing nuclear propulsion in parallel with FNPP development, recognizing synergies in reactor design, regulatory frameworks, and maritime integration. For example, CORE Power (UK/US) is partnering with shipyards and reactor vendors to develop advanced reactors for propulsion and floating energy hubs; Samsung Heavy Industries (Korea) is exploring the integration of molten salt reactors into container vessels and offshore assets; and the Norwegian Maritime Authority (Norway), along with a number of other Norwegian entities, is supporting feasibility studies for nuclear-powered cruise liners and cargo ships navigating the Norwegian coast and polar routes.

These initiatives signal a shift from theoretical exploration to practical deployment, with ship classes such as LNG tankers, reefers, RoRo vessels, and deep-sea cable layers identified as strong candidates for first-mover adoption.

Use cases for maritime nuclear power

Both FNPPs and nuclear-propelled ships enable a broad and expanding set of energy and logistics applications. As modular reactor designs mature and regulatory pathways clarify, stakeholders are identifying high-impact, commercially viable use cases that justify early investment.

Floating nuclear power plants (FNPPs):

• Remote Coastal Grid Support: Powering remote islands, archipelagos, and isolated coastal regions without large-scale land infrastructure.
• Industrial Heat and Desalination: Supplying steam or high-grade heat for industrial parks, mining operations, and freshwater production in water-stressed regions.
• Data Centers and Crypto Mining: Providing reliable, emissions-free baseload power near undersea cable landing sites or high-density digital infrastructure.
• Disaster Recovery and Humanitarian Aid: Deploying to coastal regions affected by earthquakes, tsunamis, or grid collapse to rapidly restore essential services.
• Military and Dual-Use Installations: Supporting forward-deployed bases or port facilities requiring long-term autonomous power generation.

Merchant Nuclear Propelled Ships:

• Long-Range Cargo Transport: Decarbonizing the backbone of global trade through nuclear-powered tankers, container ships, and bulk carriers operating on intercontinental routes.
• Passenger Shipping: Enabling transoceanic cruise liners with net-zero propulsion and minimal refueling needs.
• Offshore Hydrogen Production: Powering hydrogen electrolysis aboard mobile platforms stationed near offshore wind farms or coastal production hubs.
• Polar and Arctic Logistics: Ensuring year-round access and commercial operations in ice-prone waters using ice-classed nuclear ships.
• Maritime Emergency Response: Deploying floating hospitals, command centers, or recovery logistics to disaster zones without needing land access or fuel logistics.

By combining mobile power generation with decarbonized propulsion, maritime nuclear technologies offer a dual advantage—unlocking clean energy where it's needed most while simultaneously transforming the logistics backbone of the global economy.

These use cases illustrate how the mobility, reliability, and energy density of maritime nuclear power can serve climate, security, and economic development goals.

Regulatory and institutional challenges

FNPPs and nuclear ships exist at the complex intersection of civil nuclear and maritime law—two very heavily regulated sectors. Effective international deployment will require harmonization across several fronts:

• General Licensing Framework: FNPPs and ships must meet both nuclear and maritime licensing regimes. Avoiding duplicative reviews is key for cross-border deployment.
• Nuclear Safety: The International Atomic Energy Agency’s (IAEA) Convention on Nuclear Safety applies to land-based nuclear reactors, but does not explicitly cover marine deployments. Applying its safety principles to floating nuclear power plants and nuclear-propelled ships will require adaptation for marine conditions (e.g., hull integrity, accident response at sea). Jurisdictional boundaries between domestic nuclear regulators—and between nuclear and maritime authorities—will also need to be clarified.
• Maritime Safety: The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), two foundational international treaties governing the legal and safety frameworks for activities at sea, provide a maritime legal foundation. SOLAS Chapter VIII currently applies only to self-propelled ships; IMO is revising the Code of Safety to accommodate FNPPs.
• Classification Societies: Entities like the American Bureau of Shipping, Lloyd’s Register, and Bureau Veritas will certify vessels. The International Association of Classification Societies (IACS), the global umbrella organization of major ship classification societies to which these other organizations belong, must finalize unified class rules for nuclear applications.
• Safeguards and Security: IAEA safeguards must cover all life-cycle phases (fabrication, transit, deployment). The Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material (CPPNM), an international treaty focused specifically on the physical protection of nuclear material and facilities, and the IAEA’s Nuclear Security Series—particularly NSS-13 (INFCIRC/225/Revision 5)—which provides detailed recommendations on physical protection of nuclear material and facilities—provide the baseline for physical protection.
• Liability and Insurance: FNPPs and merchant nuclear-powered ships raise complex liability issues, as they straddle both nuclear and maritime legal regimes. While international nuclear conventions, such as the Paris, Vienna, and the Convention on Supplemental Compensation (CSC) treaties likely apply to FNPPs and could extend to nuclear-propelled ships (domestic nuclear liability laws would also need to be checked), they do not uniquely account for maritime-specific risks like collisions, transboundary operations, or port calls. Resolving liability, insurance coverage, and jurisdictional authority will require coordinated action between multiple stakeholders.

The IAEA's "ATLAS" initiative—Atomic Technology Licensed for Application at Sea—and the newly formed NGO "NEMO"—Nuclear Energy Maritime Organization—signal momentum in aligning standards and stakeholders.

International cooperation and forward momentum

To support safe and scalable deployment, the CORDEL paper recommends:

• National Regulatory Readiness: Countries must align their nuclear and maritime laws.
• Joint IAEA/IMO Guidance: Expand NHSI and ATLAS efforts to establish FNPP-specific safety frameworks.
• Classification Rules: IACS should finalize and harmonize FNPP and nuclear vessel class rules.
• Intergovernmental Agreements: Stakeholders must clarify responsibility for licensing, liability, and safeguards.
• Design-Stage Integration: Apply Safety, Security, and Safeguards (3S) principles from the outset.
• Pilot Projects: Learn from real-world deployments like Akademik Lomonosov and new merchant vessel and FNPP designs.

With momentum building and new actors emerging, maritime nuclear power is poised to become a cornerstone of clean, resilient, and global energy infrastructure.

For any questions, please contact author Amy Roma, a Partner at Hogan Lovells.